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= European rabbit =
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Introduction
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The European rabbit ('Oryctolagus cuniculus') or coney is a species of
rabbit native to the Iberian Peninsula and southwestern France. It has
been introduced to hundreds of locations around the world. Wild and
domesticated European rabbits around the world can vary widely in
size, shape, and colour. The average adult European rabbit is smaller
than the European hare, though size and weight vary with habitat and
diet.
European rabbits prefer grassland habitats and are herbivorous, mainly
feeding on grasses and leaves, though they may supplement their diet
with berries, tree bark, and field crops such as maize. They are prey
to a variety of predators, including birds of prey, weasels, cats, and
canids. The European rabbit's main defence against predators is to run
and hide, using vegetation and its own burrows for cover. It is well
known for digging networks of burrows, called warrens, where it spends
most of its time when not feeding. The European rabbit lives in social
groups centred around territorial females. European rabbits in an
established social group will rarely stray far from their warren, with
female rabbits leaving the warren mainly to establish nests where they
will raise their young. Unlike hares, rabbits are born blind and
helpless, requiring maternal care until they leave the nest.
The European rabbit has been hunted since the Paleolithic period, and
raised as a food source since at least the first century BCE. It has
also had major agricultural and biological impacts as an invasive
species. It is the only domesticated species of rabbit, and all known
breeds of domestic rabbit are its descendants. It has often been
introduced to exotic locations as a food source or for sport hunting.
It has been introduced to at least 800 islands and every continent
except Antarctica, often with devastating effects on local
biodiversity due to a lack of predators. However, the species is
listed as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation
of Nature, as it has faced population decline in its native range due
to overhunting, habitat destruction, and diseases such as myxomatosis
and rabbit haemorrhagic disease. This decline has directly led to
negative impacts on populations of the Iberian lynx and Spanish
imperial eagle, predators that rely on the rabbit as food.
Taxonomy
==========
Originally assigned to the genus 'Lepus' by Swedish biologist Carl
Linnaeus in 1758, the European rabbit was placed in the newly created
genus 'Oryctolagus' in 1874 by Swedish zoologist Wilhelm Lilljeborg.
This generic name derives from (, 'burrowing') and (, 'hare'). Its
species name, , stems from the Low Latin root word , the feminine form
of the adjective . The European rabbit had several characteristics
that distinguished it from the known hares: it had unique burrowing
habits, blind and helpless (altricial) young, and a narrow nasal
opening. It is superficially similar to the North American cottontails
('Sylvilagus') in that both are altricial, have white flesh, and
display little sexual dimorphism. However, they differ in skull
characteristics, and cottontails do not construct their own burrows as
the European rabbit does. Molecular studies confirm the resemblance is
due to convergent evolution, and that the European rabbit's closest
relatives are the riverine rabbit ('Bunolagus monticularis'), the
hispid hare ('Caprolagus hispidus'), and the Amami rabbit ('Pentalagus
furnessi'). The European rabbit gene ', responsible for the principal
immunoglobulin light chain, shows high amino acid divergence between
domesticated types and ferals derived from them. This divergence can
be as high as 40%, and indicates high genetic diversity of populations
surviving over evolutionary time scales.
The following cladogram, based on analysis of nuclear and
mitochondrial DNA done by Matthee and colleagues in 2004 and
clarifications from Abrantes and colleagues in 2011, encompasses the
known genera of rabbits and hares:
{{clade
|1=
|2={{clade
|1='Romerolagus' (volcano rabbit) 50 px
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=
|2={{clade
|1=
|2='Pentalagus' (Amami rabbit) 50 px
}}
}}
}}
|2='Lepus' (hares) 60 px
}}
}}
}}
Subspecies
============
there are two recognized subspecies of the European rabbit: 'O. c.
cuniculus' and 'O. c. algirus'. These subspecies are also referred to
as the common rabbit and the Iberian rabbit, respectively. The common
rabbit has a native range encompassing parts of southern France and
north-east Spain, while the Iberian rabbit occurs in the south-west
part of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal and Andorra). Both
subspecies have been introduced to regions beyond their native range,
though the common rabbit is much more widespread. While the common
rabbit has been introduced to every continent besides Antarctica and
several hundred islands, the Iberian rabbit is only known as
non-native on a few islands: the Azores, Madeira, Canary, and Balearic
Islands; Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily.
The two accepted subspecies of European rabbit differ enough such that
they have been proposed for separation into distinct species. Compared
to the common rabbit, the Iberian rabbit is smaller and has more
pronounced reverse sexual dimorphism (females are larger). It is also
affected by different parasites. The Iberian rabbit has a notably high
diversity of nucleotides compared to other rabbits.
Historically, the number and names of the European rabbit's subspecies
have changed. Their original descriptions were often differentiated
only in body size or patterns in fur colour. Little to no reference
was given for a subspecies' geographic range or variations in size or
appearance. Writing in the 'Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society'
in 1996, Colin Sharples and colleagues noted that "[t]here has been no
comprehensive account of the taxonomic status of the European rabbit
since Miller's (1912) catalogue of European mammals". The referenced
Gerrit Smith Miller Jr., an American naturalist, described two
subspecies of European rabbit in 1912: the nominate subspecies 'O. c.
cuniculus', and the Mediterranean rabbit 'O. c. huxleyi'. He noted
that the 19th-century species 'Lepus vernicularis' and 'Lepus
vermicula' were 'nomina nuda' (having no proper description) and
should be considered synonyms of the common rabbit. 'Cuniculus
fodiens' was also made a synonym of the common rabbit in this work. Of
the Mediterranean rabbit, Miller wrote that it was smaller than 'O. c.
cuniculus' and appeared to have a "more grey and finely grizzled"
colour. In 1951, Ellerman and Morrisson-Scott provided a list of six
subspecies; there they wrote that the species 'Cuniculus kreyenbergi'
was a synonym of 'O. c. cuniculus'. This was based on a 1938 account
by American zoologist Glover Morrill Allen that presumed it to be a
non-native population of the European rabbit in China. A profile of
the species by John A. Gibb in 1990 followed Miller and again
recognized only 'O. c. cuniculus' and 'O. c. huxleyi'. Sharples found
in 1996 that there were two distinct lineages of mitochondrial DNA in
Europe, but did not recommend which subspecies should be recognized
going forward, if any. By 2005, six subspecies were recognized in the
third edition of 'Mammal Species of the World':
This organization was similar to that put forth by Ellerman and
Morrisson-Scott in 1951. The earlier account differed in that the
Cretan rabbit was considered a synonym of the Mediterranean rabbit,
and 'O. c. oreas'--thought to be a subspecies endemic to Morocco--was
an accepted name. This taxonomy was challenged by genetic studies
undertaken in 2008, which indicated only two extant subspecies: 'O. c.
cuniculus' and 'O. c. algirus'. These remain the two recognized
subspecies of European rabbit, as of 2025. The two lineages are
thought to have diverged during the Quaternary glaciation 2 million
years ago (Mya). Most populations in regions where the European rabbit
is not native are considered to belong to 'O. c. cuniculus'. This
includes 'O. c. brachyotus', 'O. c. cnossius', and 'O. c. habetensis'.
Conservation efforts have historically treated the common rabbit and
Iberian rabbit as interchangeable with regards to policies and
translocation programmes; this has impacted the declining Iberian
rabbit population and spurred efforts to recognize the two lineages as
separate species.
!Subspecies !Trinomial authority !Skull !Image !Description !Range
!Synonyms
|**Common rabbit** 'O. c. cuniculus' (Nominate subspecies)
|(Linnaeus, 1758) |alt=Dorsal view of the common rabbit subspecies'
skull |100 px |Longer ears and hind feet, greater body mass overall,
less pronounced reverse sexual dimorphism compared to 'O. c. algirus'.
Domesticated. |Native to northeastern Iberia and southern France.
Introduced to Crete, northern Morocco, northern Algeria, the British
Isles, Central, Southern and Eastern Europe, Australia, New Zealand,
Chile, Africa, and several Atlantic and Pacific islands. |'brachyotus'
(Trouessart, 1917) 'cnossius' (Bate, 1906) 'fodiens' (Gray, 1867)
'habetensis' (Cabrera, 1923) 'kreyenbergi' (Honigmann, 1913)
'vermicula' (Gray, 1843) 'vernicularis' (Thompson, 1837)
|**Iberian rabbit** 'O. c. algirus'
|(Loche, 1858) |alt=Dorsal view of the Iberian rabbit subspecies'
skull |100 px |Smaller and with more pronounced reverse sexual
dimorphism compared to 'O. c. cuniculus'. Notably high diversity of
nucleotides compared to other rabbits. Affected by different parasites
compared to 'O. c. cuniculus'. Native to Portugal and southern Spain.
Introduced to the Azores, Madeira, and Canary Islands; the Balearic
Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily. |'huxleyi' (Haeckel, 1874)
Fossil record
===============
The oldest known fossils of the currently living European rabbit
species, 'Oryctolagus cuniculus', date to 0.6 million years ago in the
Middle Pleistocene age in southern Spain. The first fossils belonging
to the genus 'Oryctolagus' were found in Granada and date to 6 Mya
during the Miocene epoch. Species such as 'O. laynensis', a presumed
ancestor of 'O. cuniculus', and 'O. lacosti' were recorded from 3.5
Mya up until the appearance of 'O. cuniculus'. This species, 'O.
cuniculus', was the only member of its genus to survive to the Late
Pleistocene, whereupon it spread from the Iberian Peninsula to the
Mediterranean and northern Europe. Fossils of the European rabbit are
also known in the Maghreb from this period, though they were likely
introduced to the region by humans. During the Last Glacial Maximum, a
period lasting roughly from 26.5 to 19 thousand years ago, much of
Europe was covered in permafrost, and conditions were cold and dry.
Glaciers were at their greatest extent from 20 to 18 thousand years
ago. Rabbit populations during this period were largely confined to
the Iberian Peninsula and southern France, where they remained in two
distinct, isolated refugia. They dispersed away from these refugia
into central Spain after glaciers retreated, in the Early Holocene
epoch roughly 11.5 thousand years ago.
Description
======================================================================
Adult European rabbits typically range from 36 to 38 cm in length and
weigh 1.5 to 3 kg. The tail is long, and the hind foot measures 8 to
8.9 cm in length. The ears are 7 to 8 cm long. The European rabbit is
smaller than the European hare and mountain hare, has proportionately
shorter legs and lacks black ear tips.
Size and weight vary according to food and habitat quality. Rabbits
living on light soil with nothing but grass to feed on are noticeably
smaller than specimens living on highly cultivated farmlands with
plenty of roots and clover. Pure European rabbits weighing 5 lb and
upwards are uncommon, but are occasionally reported. One large
specimen, caught in February 1890 in Lichfield, England, was weighed
at 6 lb. Within its native range of the Iberian peninsula, the
European rabbit is generally smaller than in regions it has been
introduced to, weighing from . Unlike the brown hare, the male
European rabbit is more heavily built than the female. The penis is
located posterior to the scrotum and lacks a baculum (the penis bone,
present in many mammals, but not in rabbits) and true glans. The
testicles, which are located in scrotal sacs to each side of the
penis, can be retracted into the abdomen when food is scarce or when
sexually inactive. Rudimentary nipples are also present in male
rabbits.
The fur of the European rabbit is made up of soft down hair covered by
stiff guard hairs, and is generally greyish-brown, though this is
subject to much variation. The guard hairs are banded brown and black,
or grey, while the nape of the neck and scrotum are reddish. The chest
patch is brown, while the rest of the underparts are white or grey. A
white star shape is often present on kittens' foreheads, but rarely
occurs in adults. The whiskers are long and black, and the feet are
fully furred and buff-coloured. The tail has a white underside, which
becomes prominent when escaping danger. This may act as a signal for
other rabbits to run.
Moulting occurs once a year, beginning in March on the face and
spreading over the back. The underfur is completely replaced by
October-November. The European rabbit exhibits great variation in
colour, from white and light sandy to dark grey and completely black.
Such variation depends largely on the amount of guard hairs relative
to regular pelage. Melanistic rabbits are not uncommon in mainland
Europe, though albinos are rare.
The skeleton and musculature of the European rabbit, like other
rabbits and hares, are suited to survival by rapid escape from
predators. Compared to other mammals of similar size, the European
rabbit's skeleton is fragile and light, making up 8% of the rabbit's
body weight on average. For comparison, the skeleton of a domestic cat
makes up 13% of its weight. Most of the muscular development in the
rabbit is focused in the lumbar (abdominal) region and the limbs,
particularly in the thighs. The rabbit's hind limbs are an exaggerated
feature, being much longer and capable of producing more force than
the forelimbs. Underuse of the rabbit's muscles leads to osteoporosis
via bone rarefaction.
Social and territorial behaviour
==================================
The European rabbit lives in burrows known as warrens that contain
social groups consisting of one to five adult males, known as bucks,
and one to eight adult females, known as does. These warrens often
form around a dominant male and several subordinate females and males,
and they benefit the population by providing a location safe from
predators to raise young. Breeding groups of rabbits may extend to
include two or more nearby warrens if beneficial to the population.
European rabbits are territorial, and even within a warren will defend
their territory against neighbouring social groups. Females tend to be
more territorial than males. Rabbit territories are marked with dung
hills, known as latrines.
The size of the species' home range varies according to habitat, food,
shelter, cover from predators, and breeding sites, though it is
generally small, encompassing about . Male ranges tend to be larger
than those of females, though this can vary depending on environmental
factors. Female home ranges have been observed to be larger than those
of males when rabbit density is low and high-quality food is abundant.
The European rabbit rarely strays far from its burrow; when feeding on
cultivated fields, it typically only moves 25 m away from its burrow,
and rarely 50 m. It may, however, move as far as 500 m after an abrupt
change in environment, such as a harvest. This behaviour may be an
antipredator adaptation, as rabbits in areas where predators are under
rigorous control may move three times further from their burrows than
those in areas without predator management.
The European rabbit is a gregarious animal, which lives in stable
social groups centred around females and sharing access to one or more
burrow systems. Social structures tend to be looser in areas where
burrow construction is relatively easy. Dominance hierarchies exist in
parallel for both bucks and does. Among bucks, status is determined
through access to does, with dominant bucks siring the majority of the
colony's offspring. The dominant does have priority access to the best
nesting sites, with competition over such sites often leading to
serious injury or death; they have been observed fighting as hard or
harder than bucks when vying for resources, including good nesting
sites. Subordinate does, particularly in large colonies, typically
resort to using single-entrance breeding spots far from the main
warren, or may abandon the warren entirely, thus making themselves
vulnerable to fox or badger predation.
Reproduction and development
==============================
In the European rabbit's mating system, dominant bucks exhibit
polygyny, whereas lower-status individuals (both bucks and does) often
form monogamous breeding relationships; monogamous relationships are
also common among groups of rabbits with lower density of females.
Rabbits signal their readiness to copulate by marking other animals
and inanimate objects with an odoriferous substance secreted through a
chin gland, in a process known as "chinning". Though male European
rabbits may sometimes be amicable with one another, fierce fights can
erupt among bucks during the breeding season, which typically starts
in autumn and continues through to spring. Occasionally, the mating
season will extend into the summer.
A succession of 4 to 5 litters are produced annually, but in
overpopulated areas, pregnant does may lose all their embryos through
intrauterine resorption. Each litter usually produces three to seven
kittens. Shortly before giving birth, the doe constructs a separate
burrow known as a "stop" or "stab", generally in an open field away
from the main warren. These breeding burrows are typically a few feet
long and are lined with grass and moss, as well as fur plucked from
the doe's belly. The breeding burrow protects the kittens from adult
bucks and predators, and the nest lining protects them from
hypothermia.
The gestation period of the European rabbit is 30 days, with the sex
ratio of male to female kittens tending to be 1:1. Kittens born to the
dominant buck and doe--which enjoy better nesting and feeding
grounds--tend to grow larger and stronger and become more dominant
than those born to subordinate rabbits. Not uncommonly, European
rabbits mate again immediately after giving birth, with some specimens
having been observed to nurse previous young while pregnant. Female
European rabbits may become pregnant at three months of age, but do
not reach their full reproductive ability until they are two years
old, after which they remain able to reproduce for four more years.
Bucks reach sexual maturity at four months of age.
Female European rabbits nurse their kittens once a night, for only a
few minutes. After suckling is complete, the doe seals the entrance to
the stop with soil and vegetation. In its native Iberian and southern
French range, European rabbit young have a growth rate of 5 g per day,
though such kittens in non-native ranges may grow 10 g per day. Weight
at birth is 30 - and increases to 150 - by 21-25 days, during the
weaning period. European rabbit kittens are born blind, deaf, and
nearly naked. They are predisposed to seek out chemical signals
produced by the lactating female to obtain the milk needed to survive,
in particular the pheromone known as 2-methyl-2-butenal. The rabbits'
ears do not gain the power of motion until 10 days of age. The eyes
open 11 days after birth. At 15 days, the rabbits start eating hay and
other food in the nest besides milk, and by 18 days, the kittens begin
to leave the burrow. Young rabbits that are approaching sexual
maturity but have not left the nest are often forcibly removed by
dominant males.
Burrowing behaviour
=====================
The European rabbit's burrows occur mostly on slopes and banks, where
drainage is more efficient. The burrow entrances are typically 10-50
cm in diameter, and are easily recognizable by the bare earth at their
mouths. Vegetation growth is prevented by the constant passing and
repassing of the resident rabbits. Large burrows are complex
excavations which may descend to depths of several feet. They are not
constructed on any specified plan, and appear to be enlarged or
improved as a result of activity over several generations. Kittens
sleep in chambers lined with grass and fur, while adults sleep on the
bare earth, likely to escape dampness. Warmth is secured by huddling.
Digging is done by pulling the soil backwards with the fore feet and
throwing it between the hind legs, which scatter the material with
kicking motions. While most burrows are dug from the outside, some
warrens feature holes dug from the inside, which act as emergency
exits when escaping from predators below ground. These holes usually
descend perpendicularly to 1-1.2 m, and their mouths lack the bare
earth characteristic of burrow entrances. Although both sexes dig,
does do so more skilfully and for longer periods.
Communication
===============
The European rabbit is a relatively quiet animal, though it has at
least two vocalizations. The best-known is a high treble scream or
squeal. This distress call has been likened to the cry of a piglet,
and is uttered when in extreme distress, such as being caught by a
predator or trap. During the spring, bucks express contentment by
emitting grunting sounds when approaching other rabbits. These grunts
are similar to shrill hiccups, and are emitted with the mouth closed.
Aggression is expressed with a low growl. Besides screaming or
growling, European rabbits are known to honk, purr, and hiss. Young
rabbits are far more vocal than adults; their vocalizations are
thought to be indicators that they are ready to start suckling.
Non-verbal communication occurs within social groups of rabbits,
particularly within warrens, via chinning or scent marking of objects
and other rabbits by dominant group members. Rabbits may groom
themselves using secretions from their glands or with substances such
as saliva or urine to signal their sexual or reproductive status.
Glands in the groin region appear to be particularly important for
individual identification, as rabbits will use these secretions to
identify other rabbits as unfamiliar. Both rabbits and hares are known
to thump the ground with their feet to communicate the presence of
threats, such as predators, or when they are stressed. A stressed
rabbit may also grind its teeth, but the role of this behaviour in
communication is unclear.
Habitat
=========
The European rabbit's ideal habitat consists of short grasslands with
secure refuge (such as burrows, boulders, hedgerows, scrub, and
woodland) near feeding areas. The size and distribution of its burrow
systems depend on the type of soil present. In areas with loose soil,
it selects sites with supporting structures, such as tree roots or
shrubs, to prevent burrow collapse. Warrens tend to be larger and to
have more interconnected tunnels in areas with chalk than those in
sand. In large coniferous plantations, the species only occurs on
peripheral areas and along fire breaks and rides. In the rabbit's
native range, it is strongly associated with Mediterranean shrubland.
The European rabbit's grazing habits tend to promote its ideal open
habitat via the dispersion of seeds and trimming of vegetation. In
regions where the European rabbit is not native, the species is highly
adaptive, preferring areas that have high amounts of vegetation and
cover for escaping from predators. Rabbits can be found inhabiting
steppes, forests, savannahs, and rocky outcrops in Argentina and south
and central Chile, despite these not being preferred habitats.
Diet
======
The European rabbit eats a wide variety of herbage, especially
grasses. It favours young leaves and shoots from nutritious species,
particularly fescues. In cultivated areas, the rabbit's diet expands
to various crops, including sugar beet, hay, and cereals. Winter wheat
is preferred over maize and dicotyledons. The European rabbit
generally grazes variably around its warren, creating a gradient of
low vegetation and nutritional content closer to the burrow, where
grazing is most intense, to high vegetation and available nutrition
further away, where the rabbit is more exposed to predators and uses
more energy to escape. The diet of a rabbit population is generally
influenced by the available vegetation and competition from other
herbivores; in areas with little competition, rabbits have been found
to prefer endemic plant species over non-endemics. Hungry rabbits in
winter may resort to eating bark on shrubs and young trees. Tree bark,
seeds, and roots are examples of food items that the rabbit will
forage in times of little food. Captive European rabbits in small
breeding operations may be fed with freshly foraged vegetation, though
most large-scale breeders provide rabbits with standardized feed in
pellet form, formulated to provide a balance of fibre, starch and
protein. Depending on the body's fat and protein reserves, a rabbit
can survive without food in winter for about 2 to 8 days.
The European rabbit produces and ingests caecotropes, soft,
mucus-covered pellets produced in the gastrointestinal tract. When
food is first eaten, the rabbit is not able to completely break down
the fibre and obtain the maximum amount of nutrition. In the region
posterior to the colon in the hindgut, partially digested food is
formed into soft pellets (caecotropes) filled with protein-rich
bacteria, which pass to the rectum in glossy clusters. The rabbit
swallows them whole, without breaking the enveloping membrane.
Swallowed caecotropes are then fermented in the stomach before passing
into the small intestine for nutrients to be absorbed; the
indigestible matter is excreted as hard pellets at night. This
behaviour is known as refection or caecotrophy, and is performed by
all rabbits, hares, and pikas.
Predators
===========
The European rabbit is prey to many different predatory species.
Foxes, dingoes, wolves, lynxes, wolverines, and dogs kill both adult
and young rabbits by stalking and surprising them in the open, but
relatively few rabbits are caught this way, as they can quickly rush
back to cover with a burst of speed. Both foxes and badgers will dig
out kittens from shallow burrows; badgers are too slow to catch adult
rabbits. Both wild and domestic cats can stalk and leap upon rabbits,
particularly young specimens leaving their burrows for the first time.
Wildcats take rabbits according to availability; in eastern Scotland,
where rabbits are abundant, they can make up over 90% of the wildcats'
diet. Most domestic cats are incapable of killing healthy, full-grown
adults, but will take weak and diseased ones. Does can be fiercely
protective of their kittens, having been observed to chase away large
cats and mustelids, including ferrets, stoats, and weasels. However,
rabbits typically run from mustelids, and may fear them innately.
Cases are known of rabbits becoming paralysed with fear and dying when
pursued by stoats or weasels, even when rescued unharmed. The European
rabbit makes up 85% of the polecat's diet, and its availability is
important to the success of breeding female mink. Brown rats are known
to prey upon young rabbits; they will reside in rabbit burrows during
the summer and attack them in groups.
Although many birds of prey are capable of killing rabbits, few are
strong enough to carry them. Large species, such as golden and sea
eagles, may carry rabbits back to their nests, while small eagles,
buzzards, and harriers struggle to do so. Hawks and owls typically
only carry off very small kittens. Due to its decline in the Iberian
Peninsula, the Iberian lynx and Spanish imperial eagle, specialist
predators of the European rabbit, have faced downturns in population.
Ladder snakes will prey on juveniles.
In efforts to escape predators, the European rabbit will make use of
its tail's white underside while fleeing to send signals to predators
and other rabbits through tail flagging, a pursuit-deterrence signal.
Right before fleeing, the display of a white tail warns a rabbit's
relatives of potential danger. During escape, the tail display may
serve two functions: one, as an honest signal, it indicates to a
predator that the rabbit would be costly to catch; two, it may help to
confuse the predator.
Diseases, parasites and immunity
==================================
The European rabbit is the only species to be fatally affected by
myxomatosis. The most lethal strain has a five-day incubation period,
after which the eyelids swell and the inflammation quickly spreads to
the base of the ears, the forehead, and nose. At the same time, the
anal and genital areas also swell. During the last stages of the
disease, the swellings discharge a fluid rich in viral material. Death
usually follows on day 11 or 12. The primary carrier of myxomatosis
varies based on location; in North America and Australia, it is
carried by multiple species of mosquitoes, while in Britain its
primary carrier is the rabbit flea ('Spilopsyllus cuniculi').
Rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) is an extremely contagious disease
caused by the rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) that is largely
specific to the European rabbit. It causes lesions of acute
necrotizing hepatitis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and
haemorrhaging, mainly in the lungs. Susceptible specimens have a
fatality rate of 70 to 95%. A variant of RHDV known as RHDV2 emerged
in France in 2010. This strain is known to cause fatal infections in
rabbits vaccinated against RHDV, and has since spread from France to
other parts of Europe, Africa, and North America. The strain notably
affects species besides the European rabbit, with fatal infections
recorded in individual hares ('Lepus'), red rock hares ('Pronolagus'),
riverine rabbits ('Bunolagus'), and cottontail rabbits ('Sylvilagus').
The European rabbit has unique adaptations in its innate immune system
due to a mutation in its 'CCR5' gene, which plays a part in
inflammation and immune response. This mutation is derived from a gene
conversion event in the related 'CCR2' gene; these adaptations are
shared with rabbits in the genera 'Bunolagus' and 'Pentalagus', which
suggests a common ancestor that obtained this trait roughly 8 million
years ago. Additionally, the European rabbit's adaptive immune system
has significantly diverged from other tetrapods in the manner in which
it employs immunoglobulin light chains. In one case, a unique
additional disulfide bond was discovered between Cys 80 in Vκ and Cys
171 in Cκ, which has been suggested as serving to stabilize rabbit
antibodies.
Etymology
======================================================================
Because of its origin outside of the British Isles, the species does
not have a native name in English, with the usual terms 'coney' and
'rabbit' being foreign loanwords. The root word is the Walloon , which
was once commonly used in Liège. itself is derived from the Middle
Dutch , referring to a rabbit, with the addition of the suffix '-ett'.
In the early 20th century, recorded pronunciations of 'rabbit'
included "rabbidge", "rabbert" (North Devon) and "rappit" (Cheshire
and Lancashire). More archaic spellings include 'rabbette' (15th-16th
centuries), 'rabet' (15th-17th centuries), 'rabbet' (16th-18th
centuries), 'rabatte' (16th century), 'rabytt' (17th century) and
'rabit' (18th century).
The term 'coney' or 'cony' predates 'rabbit', and first occurred
during the 12th century to refer to the animal's pelt. Later, 'coney'
referred to the adult animal, while 'rabbit' referred to the young.
The root of 'coney' is the Old French or , of which the Norman was ,
plural or . 'Connil' comes from the Latin . Its forerunner is the
Greek (), which first appeared around 204 BCE, as written in the
'Histories' by Greek historian Polybius, though its origin is unclear:
Aelian, who lived during the third century, linked the word to
Celtiberian and later authors relate it to its Basque name 'unchi'.
The Roman scholars Varro and Pliny, who wrote in the first centuries
BCE and CE respectively, connected it to 'cuneus', which refers to a
'wedge', thus making reference to the animal's digging ability. Both
authors were apparently unaware of the word's non-Latin origin; the
majority of Roman grammarians derived etymologies using only Greek and
Latin. Some ambiguity also exists as rabbits and hares were referred
to with the same words. At the time, hares were a much more important
food source than were rabbits. Later study of the etymology of has
attested to its origin as a diminutive or adjectival form of the root
word for 'dog' () in Celtiberian. The young of the rabbit are referred
to as 'kittens' in modern texts. A male rabbit is called a 'buck', as
are male goats and deer, derived from the Old English or ', meaning
"he-goat" or "male deer", respectively. A female is called a 'doe',
derived from the Old English , a word related to , meaning "to suck".
The species' dwelling place is termed a warren or coney-garth.
'Warren' comes from the Old English , itself derived from the Old
French , , or . The root word is the Low Latin , which originally
signified a preserve in general, only to be later used to refer
specifically to an enclosure set apart for rabbits and hares.
"Coney-garth" derives from the Middle English , which may be a
compound of 'connynge' + 'erthe' ('coney'+'earth'). The term stems
from the Old French or , and later .
Origins
=========
Research in the late 20th century has shown that all European rabbits
carry common genetic markers and descend from one of two maternal
lines. These lines originated roughly 2million years ago on the
Iberian Peninsula and in southern France. Humans began hunting rabbits
and hares in the Paleolithic period; these and other animals became
more prominent in the human diet roughly 20,000years ago. Rabbits were
unfavourable prey to early humans due to their evasiveness and low
fat-to-protein ratio, which could lead to protein toxicity (sometimes
termed "rabbit starvation"). Despite these factors, during the Upper
Paleolithic, rabbits, hares, and pikas made up most of the small
animal prey hunted by humans throughout the Mediterranean and the
Iberian Peninsula. Rabbits were used for more than just their meat by
early humans; archaeological studies have found that their bones were
used in needles and tubular ornaments, and their fur was likely used
as well.
Linguistic record
===================
Neither the Greek nor Roman colonizers of the Iberian peninsula had a
specific name for the rabbit, because the species was not native to
Greece and Italy, though it is present there nowadays. They commonly
called it "small hare" and "small digging hare", in contrast to the
European hare, which is larger and does not make burrows. The Roman
poet Catullus described the rabbit with the name
'cuniculus',{{efn|This was a latinization of the Western Iberian word
and the etymological origin of the Castilian name 'conejo', Portuguese
'coelho', Catalan 'conill', and the English name 'coney'}} and
referenced its abundance in Celtiberia by calling this region
'cuniculosa', i.e. rabbit-ridden.-->
In culture
============
European rabbits are seen both in contemporary and historical art as
well as in folklore. Rabbits were associated with the Iberian
peninsula when it was under Roman rule as the provinces of Hispania;
several coins produced during the reign of Roman emperor Hadrian
featured rabbits alongside the personification of Hispania. Rabbit
warrens were described as undermining the ramparts of Tarraco by Pliny
the Elder, who recommended a method of hunting rabbits with ferrets.
The use of ferrets to hunt rabbits was still used in the 16th century,
as described by English poet George Gascoigne. The English cleric
Edward Topsell wrote on the European rabbit in his 1607 work 'The
History of Four-footed Beasts', describing the species and its
prevalence throughout England, as well as common beliefs about it,
such as its uses in medicine: its brain was described as an effective
antidote against poison, and the residue from a mixture of powdered
rabbit and wine was thought to cure a sore throat.
Domestication
===============
The European rabbit is the only rabbit species to be widely
domesticated, for meat, fur, wool, or as a pet. It was first widely
kept in ancient Rome from the first century BCE, where Pliny the Elder
described the use of rabbit hutches, along with enclosures called
'leporaria.' These enclosures may have been intended more for hares
rather than rabbits, however, as hares were a much more important food
source--they were larger and provided more meat--and words for rabbits
and hares at the time of ancient Rome referred to both species. In the
present day, the European hare is still kept in captivity in some
parts of Europe, though it faces stress, disease, and reproductive
issues. The European rabbit has been refined into a wide variety of
breeds during and since the emergence of animal fancy in the 19th
century. Several breeds are widely used in research; the European
rabbit is one of the first mammals to have its whole genome sequenced,
and it has been important in the field of immune system research.
Selective breeding has been used since ancient times to produce
rabbits with different characteristics, and while domestic rabbits are
typically larger than wild rabbits, the various breeds of domestic
rabbit exist in a range of sizes from "dwarf" to "giant". All rabbit
breeds, from Netherland Dwarf to Flemish Giant, are descendants of the
European rabbit. They have as much colour variation among themselves
as other livestock and pet animals.
As pets
=========
European rabbits have been kept as pets since the 1800s starting in
the Victorian era, and Beatrix Potter wrote on the house rabbit in the
1900s. However, the public perception of the rabbit remained as that
of a children's pet until the publication of Marinell Harriman's
'House Rabbit Handbook' in 1985, after which their popularity grew
significantly. The rabbit is the third most popular pet in the United
Kingdom, and a 2024 survey found roughly 900,000 households with a pet
rabbit in the United States. Adoptions in the United States increase
significantly during Easter, though many rabbits adopted during this
time are neglected, given to animal shelters, or abandoned.
In some urban areas, infestations of feral European rabbits descended
from pets have become a problem. Helsinki, for example, is host to a
notably persistent population of the species that originated from
domestic rabbits released in the 1980s. Major infestations can have
massive impacts on agriculture and biodiversity, and have been
difficult to control through physical and biological means, such as
that in Australia. Several attempts at extirpation, on the islands of
Isola delle Femmine and Macquarie Island, have been successful.
Use for meat and fur
======================
The European rabbit has been hunted in its native range since at least
the Last Glacial Maximum roughly 20,000years ago, and it continues to
be a game animal. Much of the world's supply of rabbit meat comes from
domestic rabbits. Over of rabbit meat was produced globally in 2024.
Historically, rabbit was a popular food source in the United Kingdom
for the poorer classes. Among wild rabbits, those native to Spain were
reputed to have the highest meat quality, followed by those in the
Ardennes. As rabbits hold very little fat, they were hardly ever
roasted, being instead boiled, fried, or stewed.
William Marshall calculated in the 18th century that the value of the
rabbit's skin in proportion to its carcass was greater than that of
the sheep and ox. In the early 20th century, the pelt of the rabbit
was seen as heavier and more durable than the hare's. Its fur was
primarily used for felting or hats, and was also dyed or clipped, or
sold as imitations of more valuable furbearers, such as fur seal.
Development of rabbit breeds in the 21st century has caused meat and
fur rabbits to become further separated. Some breeds of rabbit are
bred for their fur, and others for their meat. Fur length varies
depending on the breed. Large Angora rabbit breeds are raised for
their long, soft fur, which is often spun into yarn. The Rex rabbit is
raised for its smooth, velvet-like coat, with the hairs of its fur
only measuring about long. There is no standard method for the
tanning of rabbit skins. Skins are often used in gloves, footwear,
linings and other garments, while yarn is used to make items such as
blankets, hats, and thermal underwear. Compared to meat production,
few statistics on rabbit fur and fiber production are known, though in
2014 France reported 70million rabbit skins produced.
As an introduced species
==========================
The European rabbit has been introduced into several environments,
often with harmful results to vegetation and local wildlife, making it
an invasive species. The first known mention of the rabbit as an
invasive species was made in regard to the introduction of the rabbit
to the Balearic Islands after the Roman conquest of the first century
BCE. According to both Strabo and Pliny the Elder, the multiplying
rabbits caused famines by destroying crop yields and even collapsed
trees and houses with their burrowing. The inhabitants petitioned
Augustus for help, who sent troops to curb the rabbit population with
the help of ferrets. This was possibly the first ever documented
instance of an invasive species. The deliberate introduction of
rabbits across Europe was common from the Middle Ages onwards, as the
right to hunt or keep rabbits was used by monasteries, Norman dukes,
and kings as a reward for services or to develop political allies.
Rabbits were spread further as colonial powers developed across
Europe, such as in the case of the Azores and Canary Islands, which
were important strategic locations for Spanish and Portuguese ships on
their way to the Americas.
Other locations where the European rabbit was introduced include Great
Britain; two of the Hawaiian Islands (Laysan Island and Lisianski
Island); Oceania's Macquarie Island; the island Ōkunoshima in Japan;
Washington's Smith Island and San Juan Island (starting around 1900
and later spreading to the other San Juan Islands); Valle Nuevo
National Park in the Dominican Republic in the 1950s; several islands
off the coast of Southern Africa (including Robben Island); Australia;
and New Zealand. In addition, the European rabbit has spread to at
least 800 individual islands or island groups.
In the British Isles
======================
The European rabbit is widespread in Great Britain, Ireland, and most
other islands, except for Isles of Scilly, Rùm, Tiree, and some small
Scottish islands, such as Gunna, Sanday, and most of the Treshnish
Isles. One prominent theory is that the rabbit was first brought to
Britain by the Normans after the 1066 conquest of England, as no
pre-Norman British artistic or literary references to the animal are
known. However, physical remains of rabbits have been found dating
from the Roman conquest of Britain in the first century CE, indicating
that Romans did introduce rabbits to the island, though likely not in
great numbers. The rabbit was nonetheless scarce or absent throughout
most of England following the Norman conquest, as warrens are not
mentioned in the Domesday Book or any other 11th-century documents.
Rabbits became well known, but not necessarily accepted members of
British fauna between the 12th and 13th centuries. Evidence of their
presence is found in a number of bones from the midden of Rayleigh
Castle, which was occupied from the 11th-13th centuries. The first
references to rabbits in Ireland occur roughly at the same time as
English ones, thus indicating Norman introduction. They had become
plentiful, probably at a local level, by the 13th century, as
indicated by an inquisition of Lundy Island made in 1274 describing
how 2,000 rabbits were caught annually. Subsequent allusions in
official documents became more frequent, with the species later
becoming an important food item at feasts.
Truly wild populations increased slowly, primarily in the coastal
areas and lowland heaths of Breckland and Norfolk. There were notable
population increases after 1750, when changes in agricultural
practices created favourable habitats, and increasing interest in game
management resulted in intensive predator control campaigns. Although
now common in the Scottish lowlands, the species was little known in
Scotland before the 19th century. Until then, it was confined to
portions of the Edinburgh district at least as far back as the 16th
century, certain islands and the coastal sand dunes of the Scottish
mainland. Although unknown in Caithness in 1743, the species became
well established there by 1793.
The infectious disease myxomatosis entered Britain from France in
1953, and reached Ireland by 1954, prompting the Royal Society for the
Protection of Birds to set up "mercy squads" meant to euthanize
myxomatous rabbits. Major myxomatosis outbreaks still occur in
Britain, peaking twice annually: in spring and especially in late
summer or autumn, though immunity has reduced the mortality rate from
99% to 5-33%.
Between 1996 and 2018, rabbit numbers fell by 88% in the east Midlands
of England, 83% in Scotland, and 64% across the whole of the UK.
Efforts have been made in these regions to encourage the preservation
and development of safe rabbit habitats, as some arable pastures
depend on rabbits' grazing habits to remain healthy.
In Australia and New Zealand
==============================
Though rabbits were first introduced to Australia in 1788 with the
arrival of the First Fleet, the most significant population explosion
occurred later on in the 19th century. Twenty-four European rabbits
were introduced to Australia in 1859 by estate owner Thomas Austin in
Victoria. These rabbits were introduced both for hunting purposes and
to provide a sense of familiarity for colonists, allowing for the
pastimes of sport shooting, coursing, and falconry. Rabbits were also
introduced to New Zealand as a substitute for foxes in horseback
hunting. Their descendants multiplied and spread throughout the
country and caused severe agricultural damage and widespread
ecological changes that contributed to the decline of native
Australian species such as the greater bilby ('Macrotis lagotis') and
the southern pig-footed bandicoot ('Chaeropus ecaudatus').
Between 1901 and 1907, Australia built an immense "rabbit-proof fence"
to halt the westward expansion of the infestation. The European
rabbit, however, can not only jump very high, but also burrow
underground, and this fence failed to protect from rabbit infestation;
despite this, further fencing projects were undertaken that also
failed to control the spread of rabbits in Australia.
During the 1950s, the intentional introduction of the Myxoma virus,
which causes myxomatosis, provided some relief in Australia, but not
in New Zealand, where the insect vectors necessary for the spread of
the disease were not present. Myxomatosis can also infect pet rabbits.
Today's remaining feral rabbits in Australia are largely immune to
myxomatosis. A strain of a second deadly rabbit virus, rabbit
haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV), was imported to Australia in 1991
as a biological control agent and was released accidentally in 1995,
killing millions of rabbits. The virus has been developed further to
address changes in environment and population, with a Korean variant
referred to as K5 being released throughout Australia in 2017. RHDV
was also introduced--illegally--in New Zealand with less success due
to improper timing.
In South America
==================
The exact date on which the European rabbit was introduced into Chile
is unknown, though the first references to it occur during the
mid-18th century. By the 19th century, several authors referred to the
presence of both rabbits and rabbit hutches in central Chile. The
importation and breeding of rabbits was encouraged by the state, as
rabbits were seen as cheap sources of food for peasants. Whether or
not their escape into the wild was intentional is unknown, but
warnings over the dangers of feral rabbits were raised during the
early 20th century and the species had propagated dramatically by the
late 1920s in central Chile, Tierra del Fuego, and the Juan Fernández
Islands. In the 1930s, the state sought to tackle the rabbit problem
by banning fox hunting, though it was later discovered that indigenous
South American foxes rarely preyed on rabbits, preferring native
species. In modern times, the European rabbit problem has not been
resolved definitively, though a deliberate outbreak of myxomatosis in
Tierra del Fuego successfully reduced local rabbit populations. The
species remains a problem in central Chile and on Juan Fernández,
despite years-long hunting projects.
European rabbits cause ecological damage in Chile by uprooting
vegetation with long regeneration cycles and overgrazing across large
areas, reducing biodiversity. Rabbit burrows directly increase the
risk of erosion. Where rabbits cannot burrow, such as along the
Chilean coast, they use the nests of other animals, which has led to
nesting failures in seabirds. Because burrowing is tied to the
rabbit's reproduction, destroying burrows has been one of a few
effective means of population control. Since its introduction into
Chile, the European rabbit has spread into Argentina and Uruguay. In
other Central and South American countries, there are no reported
feral populations. Cuniculture is widespread, but there is a lack of
standardized information or statistics across countries.
In Ukraine
============
The two accounts over the introduction of rabbits in Ukraine are
conflicting. One holds that the species was brought there in the early
20th century by the Austrian nobleman, Graf Malokhovsky, who released
them on his estate near the Khadzhibey Estuary, while another holds
that rabbits were first brought to Kherson from Switzerland in 1894 or
1895 by landowner Pinkovsky. Since the 1980s, many populations of
rabbits in the country have since declined or become extinct. Early
populations introduced to the outskirts of Odesa were reported to have
spread to a range spanning 300 km in diameter by 1923, and by the peak
of the rabbits' populations in 1980, they were reported as living
among abandoned tenements and caves across the Odesa, Ternopil,
Kherson and Crimea regions. Around this period, the total population
of rabbits in Ukraine was estimated at 15 to 20 thousand individuals.
Epidemics of myxomatosis starting in 1981 caused the gradual
extinction of many colonies across the country; while other diseases
such as tularemia or rabbit haemorrhagic disease may be responsible
for some deaths, diagnoses almost always pointed to myxomatosis.
Strains of the myxoma virus engineered in France to control
populations in western Europe may have been responsible, having been
transmitted east by ticks and fleas. State reports in 2016 indicated
that only 100 to 300 rabbits were left in the country.
Conservation status
=====================
Though the European rabbit thrives in many of the locations where it
was introduced, within its native range in Iberia, populations are
dwindling. In 2005, the Portuguese Institute for Nature Conservation
and Forests classified 'O. cuniculus' in Portugal as "near
threatened", while in 2006, Spanish authorities (SECEM) reclassified
it in Spain as "vulnerable". In 2018, the International Union for
Conservation of Nature reclassified 'O. cuniculus' in Spain, Portugal,
and France as "endangered", due to the extent of recent declines. The
IUCN assessment of the species considers only those populations within
its natural distribution, and as such it was considered endangered in
their 2019 evaluation. It was noted as being both an important game
species and an agricultural pest, and continuation of population
management and monitoring plans were recommended. Hundreds of
thousands of European rabbits have been released in Spain and France
as part of reintroduction efforts, though these were not particularly
successful in increasing rabbit populations. Remediation of abandoned
land that had been overtaken by forest and scrubland was also
recommended, as these encroachments contributed to habitat
fragmentation and loss in regions where the rabbit was once abundant.
The species was later reassessed by the IUCN within its European range
in a 2025 publication; based on new information on subspecies
population trends, a classification of "near threatened" was given.
Within their native ranges, stable and positive population trends were
noted for the common rabbit ('O. c. cuniculus'), while negative trends
continued for the Iberian rabbit ('O. c. algirus'); future separate
assessments have been suggested for the two subspecies.
See also
======================================================================
* Cuniculture, on the practice of breeding and raising domesticated
European rabbits
* List of breeds of the domesticated European rabbit
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External links
======================================================================
* View the [http://www.ensembl.org/Oryctolagus_cuniculus/Info/Index/
rabbit genome] in Ensembl
*
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=========
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